The question of whether leaders are born or made has long occupied scholars, executives, and strategists. Recent advances in behavioural genetics, epigenetics, stress biology, and neuroscience suggest that this binary framing is overly simplistic. Leadership does not emerge solely from innate talent, nor is it merely a product of learning or experience. Instead, it is a dynamic system arising from the continuous interplay of biological predispositions, environmental influences, social structures, and neural adaptations. Understanding this interplay allows us to move beyond clichés and grasp how leadership actually emerges and evolves over time.
Genetic Foundations of Leadership
Behavioural genetic research provides insight into the heritable components of leadership-related traits. Twin studies consistently indicate that a portion of leadership emergence is genetically influenced. In one study using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, approximately 24% of the variance in leadership role occupancy (i.e., holding a formal leadership position) was attributed to genetic factors (De Neve et al., 2012). Specific genetic variants have also been identified. For example, rs4950 within the CHRNB3 gene, which encodes a subunit of neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, was associated with the occupation of leadership roles in two independent cohorts (De Neve et al., 2012). This gene is expressed in regions of the brain critical for leadership-relevant behaviours, including the prefrontal cortex (executive function and planning), the ventral tegmental area (motivation and reward processing), the striatum/nucleus accumbens (decision-making and reinforcement learning), and the hippocampus (learning and memory). Its expression suggests a plausible mechanistic link between genetic variation, neural circuitry, and traits such as social engagement, risk tolerance, and adaptive decision-making. More broadly, extensive genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have reinforced the polygenic nature of leadership traits, revealing multiple loci linked to leadership positions and “managing demands,” and genetic correlations with intelligence, risk tolerance, and well-being (Song et al., 2022). These findings suggest that while there is a biological substrate for leadership-related capacities, it is probabilistic rather than deterministic. No single gene dictates leadership; instead, thousands of variants collectively influence traits such as social boldness, risk tolerance, and stress resilience.
Social Structure and Hierarchy: The Role of Context
Leadership does not occur in isolation; in fact, social context strongly moderates how traits are expressed and rewarded. Professor Robert Sapolsky’s seminal work on baboons demonstrates that dominance, stress physiology, and behavioural outcomes are deeply intertwined. High-ranking males in stable hierarchies generally exhibit lower basal cortisol levels, suggesting reduced chronic stress; however, they are also acutely sensitive to social disruptions, highlighting that power brings responsibility and situational vulnerability (Sapolsky, 1990; Sapolsky, 2005). Importantly, subordinate individuals with strong social bonds demonstrate resilience, maintaining more stable physiological profiles than their isolated peers. These findings underscore that status, social connections, and environmental stability collectively shape the expression of traits relevant to leadership. Translating this to human organisations, the social and structural environment plays a similar role. Leadership potential is often revealed or suppressed by the surrounding hierarchy, team dynamics, and cultural norms. For instance, an individual with natural decisiveness may thrive in a supportive and structured organisation that encourages initiative. In contrast, the same traits could generate conflict or stress in a rigid or unstable setting. Conversely, individuals without strong innate predispositions can cultivate effective leadership through mentorship, collaborative networks, and repeated exposure to challenges in stable contexts. This interaction between individual capacity and social environment highlights that leadership is emergent: it arises not solely from inherent qualities, but from the dynamic feedback loop between person and context.
Biological Adaptation and Plasticity
Leadership-relevant traits are shaped not only by genetics but also by the brain’s remarkable capacity to adapt to experience. Epigenetic mechanisms, including DNA methylation, histone modification, and non-coding RNAs, allow environmental inputs such as stress, social interaction, or learning, to modulate gene expression in neural tissue (Gudsnuk & Champagne, 2012; Su et al., 2025). A well-documented example involves the glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1), where early-life adversity, such as neglect or social instability, can alter DNA methylation patterns, leading to persistent changes in stress responsivity throughout life (McGowan & Szyf, 2012). This molecular regulation interacts with neuroplasticity, the restructuring of neuronal circuits and synaptic connections, enabling repeated experiences, challenges, and responsibilities to strengthen executive function, emotional regulation, and social cognition. Regions such as the prefrontal cortex (planning and decision-making), ventral tegmental area and striatum (motivation and reinforcement learning), and social cognition networks (empathy and coalition-building) are particularly sensitive to these adaptive processes (Bueno, 2021). Together, epigenetic modulation and neural plasticity provide a dynamic mechanism through which environmental input transforms latent biological potential into the complex behavioural repertoire necessary for leadership.
Nurture, Nature, and Selection
A critical but less explored question is whether leadership can emerge independently of innate predisposition. Evidence suggests that it can, although the pathway may differ in scope and efficiency. At the same time, it is essential to recognise that predisposed individuals are often naturally selected for positions of authority. Traits such as decisiveness, risk tolerance, social boldness, and cognitive agility make some individuals more likely to pursue leadership roles, to be noticed by mentors, or to rise within organisational hierarchies (De Neve et al., 2012). This pattern mirrors what we observe in elite athletics. Marathon runners and sprinters differ in the proportion of type I (slow-twitch) and type II (fast-twitch) muscle fibres in their legs, a partially heritable trait that predisposes them toward their respective disciplines, just as height, limb proportions, and other genetic factors increase the likelihood of excelling in basketball. Yet none of these biological advantages guarantee success; they simply make individuals more likely to enter, persist in, and be selected for certain competitive environments (Bouchard et al., 1999). This selection effect does not negate the role of nurture, it highlights that, in many environments, the interaction between predisposition and opportunity amplifies the visibility and advancement of certain individuals. Leadership capacity can also be cultivated in those without strong initial predispositions. Exposure to demanding assignments, mentorship, or crisis management can foster resilience, adaptive decision-making, and social influence (Liu et al., 2020). Environmental pressures can induce epigenetic adaptations that enhance stress regulation and social engagement, while supportive organisational structures with clear feedback and opportunities for agency allow individuals to exercise leadership effectively. Additionally, repeated cognitive, social, and emotional challenges can promote neural rewiring, strengthening circuits underlying executive function, empathy, and strategic thinking. Together, these mechanisms demonstrate that leadership is not solely a product of innate traits, but that experience, opportunity, and structured challenge can cultivate leadership behaviour across a diverse range of individuals.
An Integrated Biopsychosocial Model of Leadership Emergence
Synthesising these findings, leadership emerges from a dynamic interaction of:
- Genetic Predisposition: Polygenic traits provide probabilistic tendencies for social boldness, risk tolerance, and stress resilience.
- Epigenetic Modulation and Neural Plasticity: Life experiences shape which predispositions are expressed and remodel neural circuits.
- Social Context: Hierarchical stability, relational networks, and organisational design influence the expression and cost of social interactions.
- Selection Effects: Individuals predisposed to leadership positions are more likely to ascend to visible leadership roles, amplifying the interplay between biology and opportunity.
- Nurture-Only Pathways: Structured experiences can cultivate leadership capacity independently of strong innate predispositions.
This model clarifies that leadership is emergent rather than deterministic, shaped by both inherent traits and the opportunities, challenges, and environments in which individuals operate. In conclusion, leadership is neither a gift reserved for a few nor merely a learned skill. It arises from the interplay of inherited tendencies, molecular adaptation, social structure, selection pressures, and neural plasticity, yet environmental shaping alone can cultivate significant leadership capacity. By integrating genetics, epigenetics, social science, and neuroscience, we gain a nuanced, probabilistic understanding of leadership as a dynamic system, one that emerges, adapts, and evolves across the lifespan.
References
- De Neve, J.-E., Mikhaylov, S., Dawes, C. T., Christakis, N. A., & Fowler, J. H. (2012). Born to Lead? A twin design and genetic association study of leadership role occupancy. The Leadership Quarterly, 24(1), 45–60. (pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov)
- Song, Z., Li, W.-D., Jin, X., Ying, J., Zhang, X., Song, Y., … Fan, Q. (2022). Genetics, leadership position, and well‑being: an investigation with a large-scale GWAS. PNAS. (pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov)
- Gudsnuk, K., & Champagne, F. A. (2012). Epigenetic influence of stress and the social environment. ILAR Journal, 53(3–4), 279–288. (pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov)
- McGowan, P. O., & Szyf, M. (2012). Effects of the social environment and stress on glucocorticoid receptor gene methylation: A systematic review. Psychoneuroendocrinology. (pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov)
- Su, S., Lewis, T. T., Belsky, D. W., et al. (2025). Impact of psychosocial stress in early life on pace of aging in young adulthood. Clinical Epigenetics. (clinicalepigeneticsjournal.biomedcentral.com)
- Bueno, D. (2021). Epigenetics and learning: How the environment shapes gene expression, and the possible consequences for learning and behaviour. IBRO/IBE-UNESCO Science of Learning Briefings. (solportal.ibe-unesco.org)
- Liu, X., Acar, B., & Stam, A. (2020). Leader development across the lifespan: Genetic and epigenetic perspectives. King’s College London. (pure.ed.ac.uk)
- Bouchard, C., Malina, R. M., & Pérusse, L. (1999). Genetics of Fitness and Physical Performance. Human Kinetics. (https://doi.org/10.5040/9781492596233)
- Tuncdogan, A., Acar, B., & Stam, A. (2017). Interactions between genes and environment in leadership: The moderating role of specific environmental factors. Leadership. (kclpure.kcl.ac.uk)
- Sapolsky, R. M. (1990). Hypercortisolism among socially subordinate wild baboons originates at the CNS level. JAMA Psychiatry. (jamanetwork.com)
- Sapolsky, R. M. (2005). The influence of social hierarchy on primate health. National Academies Press. (nap.nationalacademies.org)
